.
Fig. 1: Hōkan-Miroku (The Crowned Maitreya), red pine, 82.0cm, Kōryū-ji Temple in Kyoto (© public domain)
Since the analysis of art works in the classroom also requires one to reflect on the historical context of art perception per se (including one's own), it makes sense to use a well-known work for this purpose. If the students see the work in a new light after the lesson, they will have succeeded in gaining distance from their own or the general perception and taking a critical look at the impact of the respective art system influencing the perception. However, it could also be interesting for students who want to learn about a foreign culture. This is because the question of how a foreign culture but also one’s own culture is perceived as a historical, social and cultural construct, offers a valuable opportunity to understand it better. Just as one tries to get to know another person by making an effort to understand their problems.
But which work of art from Japanese art history would be suitable for this purpose, e.g. in Europe? In the author's view, the Maitreya sculpture in the Kōryū-ji Temple in Kyoto, called "Hōkan-Miroku" (The Crowned Maitreya, see Fig. 1), could serve this purpose. This work enjoys great popularity in Japanese society. It was declared Japan's first national treasure in 1951 and is still admired today as an embodiment of the Japanese ideal of beauty. However, the sculpture is also suitable because its reception history exemplifies the Japanese perception of their own cultural heritage, especially since Japan's opening to foreign countries in the second half of the 19th century[1]. This example clearly shows how even the view of the supposedly "authentic" and "own" is conveyed in many ways through the eyes from outside. In the following text, the author attempts to elaborate on this process using the example of the Maitreya sculpture.
Discussion about the origin of the statue
When and where exactly this sculpture was created is disputed. According to the Nihonshoki (Chronicle of Japan - the oldest historical record in Japan), published in 720, the Kōryū-ji Temple was founded in Kyoto in 603 by Hata no Kawakatsu. Hata no Kawakatsu was the leader of a clan of immigrants from Silla on the Korean peninsula and was close to Crown Prince Shōtoku Taishi (574–622). Crown Prince Shōtoku, in turn, was one of the central figures in introducing Buddhism to Japan.
Upon receiving a Buddhist statue from Silla (in present-day Korea), Crown Prince Shōtoku is said to have commissioned Hata no Kawakatsu to build a temple for it, the Kōryū-ji Temple in Kyoto. Later in 623, this temple received another Buddhist statue, also from Silla. However, the chronicle does not have any descriptions of these sculptures. It is therefore not possible to prove conclusively whether Hōkan-Miroku (Fig. 1) is actually one of them. At present, however, many Japanese art historians suspect that the Korean Silla is indeed the place of origin of that statue. One reason for this is the material used. All other known wooden statues from the same period (the Asuka period, 592-710) are made from camphor wood, which is not native to the Korean peninsula. This bodhisattva, however, is made from red pine, found in Korea. Furthermore, one of the Maitreya sculptures from the same period preserved in South Korea, a bronze statue (now in the Korean National Museum – National Treasure No. 83), has a very similar style and shape. Finally, Silla was a major centre of Maitreya worship in East Asia at that time. The theory that Hōkan-Miroku was actually a gift from Silla therefore seems entirely plausible.
However, the origin of the work has not yet been completely clarified. Some time ago, it became clear that camphor wood was used as material for some parts of the Hōkan-Miroku. This reignited the debate about its origin.[2]
Maitreya Bodhisattva (Future Buddha)
What is the sculpture about? This work must be interpreted in the context of Buddhism and Buddhist art. Maitreya is a bodhisattva who emerged around the 1st century AD in connection with the new, liberal movement of Mahayana Buddhism (Great Vehicle). In comparison to Tathagata (Nyorai), who represents Siddhartha Gautama (463 BC - 383 BC), the founder of Buddhism, after his experience of enlightenment (see Fig. 2: Śākyamuni Tathāgata in the Hōryū-ji Temple from 623), this sculpture shows the Bodhisattva performing an ascetic exercise. This means that the Bodhisattva is not yet enlightened, but strives tirelessly to do so while also trying to lead others to enlightenment in order to free them from their suffering. Over time, several variations of the Bodhisattva's form emerged, such as Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva who symbolises compassion for suffering people, among other things. The Maitreya Bodhisattva in Fig. 1 represents, on the other hand, in particular the thinking aspect of the Bodhisattva, the pursuit of truth. Later, in sacred writings such as a Maitreya Sutra from the 4th century, he was glorified as someone who, 56.7 million years after Siddhartha's death, would be the first human to attain enlightenment and was worshipped accordingly. Therefore it is also viewed as “Buddha of the Future (Mirai butsu)”.
Fig. 2: Śākyamuni Tathāgata, Ikaruga, Hōryū-ji Temple, 623 (© public domain)
Fig. 3: Hōkan-Miroku (The Crowned Maitreya), Kōryū-ji Temple in Kyoto, detail (© public domain)
Beauty of design
The beauty of this sculpture lies primarily in its delicate and graceful posture, leaning slightly forward, the right leg over the left, the right hand close to the right cheek. This posture is an iconographic feature of a contemplative person, at least since the first century AD in ancient India.[3] During the Northern Wei dynasty in China (368-535), this form gradually became identified with that of the Maitreya Bodhisattva.[4]
The Bodhisattva statue in the Kōryū-ji Temple is without jewellery, the upper body is naked, and the wood is uncoloured (there are only slight traces of colour from previous times). This differs from tradition, in which a bodhisattva was usually depicted with luxurious jewellery, as Siddhartha was actually a prince from the Shakya clan. There, jewellery symbolises human desire, from which one should free oneself through ascetic practice.
The simplicity of the Bodhisattva statue in the Kōryū-ji Temple conveys a stoic impression, which corresponds to the nature of Maitreya Bodhisattva and his significance as a "seeker of truth". This simplicity makes him appear credible within the conventions of religious perception. The soft modelling of the body is also striking. Today, the fine traces of the carving knife can be seen on the face. In addition, the posture of the right hand is impressive, especially the elegant, elastic shape of the fingers. The index finger just barely touches the right cheek (see Fig. 3). One wonders how it was even possible to carve a sculpture in this way, to work the wood like this. The overall appearance of Maitreya conveys a very calm and dignified impression of a deeply contemplative person.
Remarkable ways of reception
If one traces the history of the reception of this Maitreya sculpture, one encounters some curious phenomena. For example, in 1919, Japanese philosopher Tetsurō Watsuji (1889-1960) published his famous book Koji Junrei (A Pilgrimage to Ancient Temples). This book played a very important role in the reappraisal of ancient Japanese art (from around the 7th to the 12th century) in Nara and Kyoto. Surprisingly, however, this Hōkan-Miroku was not even mentioned in this book. This probably means that the sculpture was obviously not yet widely known at that time.
Restauration in 1898
In 1888, a photograph (Fig. 4) was taken of the statue before its restoration in 1898. In this picture, however, the figure can be seen wearing jewellery on its left shoulder. It also appears to be even rounder. Today we know that during the restoration in 1898, the original varnish was removed, along with the aforementioned jewellery. This revealed the wood. Originally, the sculpture was gilded, as was always the case. Thus, it certainly did not look as plain as it does today. Furthermore, the right index finger did touch the right cheek. The chair on which Maitreya sits today was also added during this restoration. (The question of who carried out this restoration and what considerations led to this specific redesign of the sculpture requires further research.)
Based on the discovery of this photograph, Japanese art historian Shūya Ōnishi points out that the specific aesthetic we know and appreciate today emerged relatively late, namely after this restoration.[5] And it is completely different from what was known at that time, during the Asuka period. In short, this aesthetic is a "modern invention".
Fig. 4: Photograph of the sculpture, taken in 1888 (© public domain)
Fig. 5: Karl Jaspers (© public domain)
High esteem by Karl Jaspers and classification as the first national treasure
Another interesting aspect of the reception of the Maitreya sculpture in the Kōryū-ji Temple is that it is linked to an episode that never appears in art history articles, but is mentioned in popular science publications: The Maitreya sculpture is said to have had special significance for the German philosopher Karl Jaspers (1883-1969) (Fig. 5). The philosopher is said to have compared it to ancient sculptures of Greek gods or to Christian works of art. He criticised the latter for remaining "stuck in the not yet completely overcome scent of the merely earthly human", whereas in the Japanese statue, the Maitreya sculpture, he found the "truly perfect, highest ideal of human existence".[6]
This anecdote comes from the memoirs of a Japanese philosopher, Eisei Shinohara (1912-2001), who lived in Germany from 1939 to 1947 and studied in Berlin, Jena and Königsberg. During the Second World War, in the autumn of 1942, he visited Karl Jaspers and discussed the philosophy of death with him. During their conversation, the German philosopher suddenly took a photo of the sculpture out of a drawer and showed it to the Japanese philosopher, accompanied by the quote mentioned above. Thus, Jaspers formalised the statue as the highest artistic achievement of mankind.
Soon afterwards, it also attracted the special attention of the Japanese. Shinohara's memoirs, in which the anecdote is recounted, were published in 1950. And in 1951, the Maitreya sculpture was declared a national treasure, the first one, by the Japanese government. The deeper reason for this classification is not known, nor is it known whether Jasper's assessment played a role. But it does not seem to have been completely insignificant.
Internalised Western artistic categories and the perception of the Maitreya sculpture
Today, the Maitreya sculpture in the Kōryū-ji Temple is widely regarded as a “true work of art of the highest order". However, this assessment and our current perception of the sculpture have been influenced by various factors. The Western perspective, which is actually foreign to Japanese culture, plays a role in this. (Incidentally, "sculpture" is "chōkoku" in Japanese. This term consists of two Chinese characters, namely "cho", meaning "to chisel", and "koku", meaning "to carve". This term refers to both sculpting and sculptures. It should be noted that this term is a translation from the Meiji period (1868-1912). It was first used in Japan in 1876 to introduce European art genres into Japanese artist training.[7])
However, the Maitreya statue was and is a religious cult figure in Buddhism. By applying the essentially Western term chōkoku (and thus a Western genre term, a Western category) to a Buddhist cult figure, it is integrated into the European art system and thus becomes an object of “pure, disinterested contemplation” (Interesseloses Wohlgefallen - Immanuel Kant).
This "integration process" culminates when publications juxtapose the Maitreya sculpture with Auguste Rodin's "Thinker", i.e. the "Eastern thinker" with the "Western thinker" – as was done, for example, in a Japanese manual for art teachers (Nihon bijutsu 101 kanshō gaidobukku - Handbook of Japanese Art 101) from 2014. The accompanying text was written by one of Japan's most renowned aesthetic theorists, Tsunemichi Kambayashi (born 1938). He writes, in quotation marks, that this Buddhist statue is the "thinker of East Asian variant".[8] In this way, Rodin's work, and thus Western perception, obviously determines how the Maitreya sculpture in the Kōryū-ji Temple is seen.
Even if this comparison of Rodin's Thinker and Maitreya is not scientific, its significance for the reception of the Maitreya sculpture in Japan should not be underestimated. The comparison with Rodin influences the general perception. Thus, our current perception is actually influenced twice, once through the Western genre concept and again through the reference to a work from the Western art system.
Conclusion
The history of the sculpture’s reception makes it clear that our perception of a supposedly highly “authentic” Japanese masterpiece is the result of multiple layers of reception processes, influenced by an increasingly Western-oriented art system and historical events.
Shaped by its reception in recent times, the work from ancient Japan appears "modern" in many ways to our eyes. The aesthetic qualities that we consider particularly authentic in this "work" are the product of our own globalised, transcultural era.
However, this reflection in no way diminishes the value and appeal of the work. For the statue is and remains the focal point and vehicle of diverse connections. In conclusion, it can be said that taking the history of reception and our current perception into account reflects the general historical and cultural experiences in Japan. This includes, above all, the process of Westernisation in modern Japan and its consequences for East Asian countries. This makes the discussion of Hōkan-Miroku meaningful in terms of art education, not only for young people in Japan.
[1] Japan implemented the isolationist foreign policy from 1639 to 1854.
[2] For more details about the debate on origin, see e.g. Takahiro Nishibayashi: Kōryū-ji shozō "Miroku bosatsu hanka zō (Hōkan-Miroku)" to hanka shii zō no genryū (English: Origin of the Maitreya sculpture in Kōryū-ji Temple and the statue of the contemplative figure in the half-lotus position), in: Ritsumeikan University Kyoto Culture Course. Learning in Kyoto. Vol. 6, Kyoto's Local History and Culture, Faculty of Philosophy, Ritsumeikan University (ed.), Kyoto 2011: Learning in Kyoto Vol. 6, Treasures of the Local Community of Kyoto and Archaeology), Learning in Kyoto Vol. 6, Treasures of the Local Community of Kyoto and Archaeology), Faculty of Philosophy, Ritsumeikan University (ed.), Kyoto 2011: Shirakawa Shoin Publishing, pp. 62-84, Schūya Ōnishi: Kokuhō dai ichi gō Kōryū-ji no miroku bosatsu wa doko kara kita no ka? (Where does the first national treasure Maitreya in Kōryū-ji Temple come from?), Tokyo 2011, Seiyannsha-Verlag, pp. 67-74.
[3] Nishibayashi: op. cit., p. 73.
[4] For details on this process, see e.g. Nishibayashi: op. cit., pp. 68-78 or Ōnishi: op. cit., pp. 55-60.
[5] Ōnishi: op. cit., pp. 76–79. The heading of the section is accordingly “Created aesthetic image”.
[6] Eisei Shinohara: Haisen no haigo ni aru mono (What Lies Beyond Defeat in War), Tokyo 1950: Kōbundō Publishing, p. 99.
[7] Saitō Dōshin: Nihon bijutsu tanjō. Kindai nihon no kotoba to senryaku (The Birth of Japanese Art: Language and Strategy in Modern Japan), Tokyo 1996: Kōdansha, pp. 51–53.
[8] Tsunemichi Kambayashi: Miroku bosatsu hanka shii zō (The Maitreya Sculpture), in: Nihon bijutsu 101 kanshō gaidobukku (Handbook of Japanese Art 101), Tokyo 2014: Sangensha, p. 18.